In 1850, a hippopotamus was brought from Egypt to London to be exhibited in the zoo. For this purpose, a specially made ship with a 2-ton water tank was constructed. It is known that Commodus killed 5 hippos and two elephants in a show that lasted several days (Dio. Cass. 73.10.3). Another animal that the Romans enjoyed watching in the arena was the elephant. During Caesar’s third consulship, a total of 20 elephants fought (Plin. HN 8.22). While transporting a hippopotamus from Egypt to London with early modern technology using a steamship was a big struggle, how did the Romans manage to bring ferocious animals like bears and lions, animals that required care like a hippopotamus, and animals as massive as an elephant with sailing ships? More importantly, how did they initially capture so many of these animals? In this post, we will explore these questions in light of primary sources, focusing more on second question. (And unfortunately, I dont promise an answer for transporting hippos).

In Rome, games were an effective tool used by politicians who wanted to gain glory, fame, and respect. The more entertaining the games given to the public as gifts (In Latin munus figuratively means gift, public show; literally service) were, the more respect it brought to the organizer. Therefore, Roman politicians tried to organize shows with as many and as exotic animals as possible. While it’s impossible to know exact numbers, it is evident that thousands of animals were slaughtered. Augustus boasted that he had fights with a total of 3,500 animals in the shows he organized throughout his life (Mon. Anc. 22). Its probably exaggerated but it is reported that 9,000 animals were killed at the opening of the Colosseum and 11,000 animals in the games of Traianus in the years 108-9.

Even if we remove one or even two zeros from these numbers, it is clear that there was a huge demand for animals. Therefore, animal hunting for shows has become a very profitable and large industry. (Petron. Sat. 119.14–18). In addition, among wealthy friends, one of the greatest gifts is to send animals to be used in shows (Sen. Ben. 1.12.3). During his governorship of Cilicia, Cicero is constantly disturbed by his friends to send panthers. (Cic. Fam. 2.11.2; Att. 6.1.21. et alia. Once, when his friend Caelius asked for a panther, he boasted that all the panthers of Cilicia had fled to Caria because only they were hunted in his province and all other beings lived in peace. Plut. Cic. 36.5). Demand for animals was so high in Rome and other cities that legions, like Cicero did in Cilicia, were directed to hunt animals in their spare time. According to an inscription, a “bear hunter” stationed in Germania captured 50 bears in just six months to be sent to Rome.

The first question that comes to mind is why they did not breed animals instead of capturing them from the wild. The answer is that they actually breed the beasts like elephants but the Romans preferred wild, undomesticated animals for shows. They even have a classification based on this: Wild (ferae); domesticated (pecudus, mansuetae); toothed (dentatae) etc.

How were these animals captured?

Lions

Rome became acquainted with lion fights in approximately 99 BC in shows organized by Aedilis Q. Scaevola. This new animal must have been so popular that L. Sulla organized shows with 100 lions, Pompeius with 600, and Caesar with 400. These numbers are likely exaggerated, but they still give an idea. How did they capture these wild and dangerous animals in such numbers? Initially, this was done by luring the lion into pits. However, during the time of Emperor Claudius, a much more interesting method was found. The shepherd from Gaetulia threw his cloak over the face of the lion that was charging at him. According to Pliny, when a lion’s eyes are covered even with a thin cloth, its aggression subsides entirely, and it cannot defend itself. This method was used both for hunting lions and in fights against lions in the arena. (Plin. HN 8.53-4). Of course, it is doubtful whether this method really works.

While on the subject of lions, let’s also discuss tigers. The method of capturing tigers is quite interesting too; when the mother tiger is not around, all the cubs are captured, and a fast horse is used to escape. When the chasing tiger approaches, one cub is thrown to the ground. The mother tiger immediately picks up that cub and returns it to its den and continue her hunt. When she catches up to its prey again, another cub is thrown down. The mother return this cub to den too, but by then, the hunter has already escaped with the remaining cubs. (Plin. HN 8.66.) Yet most popular method of hunting should be setting traps: Cicero mentions in one of his letters (Fam. 2.11.2.) that during his governorship in Cilicia, he ordered traps to be set up throughout the province to capture panthers.

Bears

According to Livius (Epit. 44.18.8), the first people to introduce bears to the arena were the aediles Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica and Publius Lentulus in 169 BC. They had 40 bears fight in the games they organized. Plinius mentions that in the games organized by the aedile Domitius Ahenobarbus in 61 BCE, 100 bears were made to fight (NH 8.131). Additionally, Plinius states that in the Annales, it is written that Ahenobarbus’ bears were of the Numidian type. However, he adds, “How can there be a Numidian bear when there are no bears in Africa?” It seems Pliny was unaware of the Atlas Bear. The method of capturing bears was by digging pits. In fact, this method seems to have been so widespread  that it even made its way into Roman laws: “Where persons dig pits for the purpose of catching bears or deer,  and do this on the highway, and anything falls into them and is injured, they will be liable under the Lex Aquilia; but they will not be liable if they dug the pits in some other place where this is ordinarily done.” (Dig. 9. 28.) Another method was to use nets with many bird feathers tied to them for scaring the animal. The bear, startled by many hunters suddenly appearing with trumpets, is driven towards the net trap and caught (Oppianus Cyneg. 4.349-424).

Hippos and Elephants

The first hippo to be exhibited in the games was in 58 BC during the aedileship of M. Scaurus, and one hippo was displayed alongside five crocodiles. A special canal was constructed for them. (Plin. NH 8.96.) Apparently, they were captured using some kind of traps, as Pliny mentions that hippos leave backward footprints to avoid retracing their steps where traps might be set when they go out to feed. (NH 8.95).

The story of the elephants is unfortunately quite sad. Their first appearance in the arena came in 252 BC when a large number of them were captured from the Carthaginians. The Romans, having seized a 142 elephants, were unsure of what to do with them. They neither dared to gift them to friendly kings nor wanted to bear the cost of maintaining so many elephants. Consequently, they killed all of them in the arena with spears. (Plin NH 8.16-7.) The first actual arena hunt took place in 99 BC during the aedileship of Claudius Pulcher. Various methods were used to capture the elephants. In India, method involved attacking a elephant that separated from its herd and whipping it to tire it out and bring it under control. In Africa, pits, which were also used to capture other animals, were employed. They were also driven into a handmade enclosure by horsemen and starved into submission. (Plin. NH 8.25).

TRANSPORTATION

Animals can be captured somehow; the real challenge is bringing them from distant lands to Rome. Animals like bears and lions can be caged and transported. Although laborious, this is a feasible task. On the other hand, transporting colossal animals like elephants must have been quite challenging, especially considering the need to cross the sea. The mentioned 142 elephants were captured in Sicily and transported through the narrow straits using “rafts that constructed by laying decks on rows of casks lashed together. (Loeb trans.)” The exact meaning of this is unclear. For those interested in examining further: “travecti ratibus quas doliorum consertis ordinibus inposuerat.” Apart from this, we know that elephants were loaded onto ships and brought over. An interesting anecdote from Pliny (NH 8.3) states that elephants do not board ships unless they receives assurance of their return from men. How did they manage to bring hippos and crocodiles all the way from Egypt? With sailboats equipped with water tanks? We don’t know for sure. Apparently, the Roman ingenuity, which managed to bring water to their cities from miles away, must have found a solution to this problem as well.

Sources and Further Reading

Primary Sources

Loeb editions of ancient texts have been used, following abbreviations from OCD4.

Cassius Dio, Historia Romanorum.

Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares.

—,       Epistulae ad Atticum.

Digesta.

Monumentum Ancyranum.

Nemesianus, Cynegetica.

Oppiananus, Cynegetica.

Petronius, Satyricon.

Plinius, Naturalis Historia.

Plutarchus, Cicero.

Seneca, De beneficiis.

Livius, Epitomae.

Secondary Sources

Kyle, Donald G. Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. 1998.

Hopkins, Keith, and Mary Beard. The Colosseum. 2005.

Friedländer, L. Roman Life and Manners Under the Early Empire. 1965.

Futrell, Alison. Blood in the arena: The spectacle of Roman Power. 1997.